Tuesday, December 29, 2015

Rizal as Teacher, Farmer, Surgeon and Engineer in Dapitan

Rizal's arrival in Sta. Cruz Beach

by Alan S. Cajes

Jose P. Rizal said that he spent “four years, thirteen days, and a few hours” in Dapitan, now a third-class city in Zamboanga del Norte. The Spanish regime arrested and exiled the 31-year old surgeon to Dapitan from 17 July 1892 to 31 July 1896 for fear that he was sowing the seed of a movement towards independence.

In a letter to his friend, Fernando Blumentritt, on 5 April 1896, Rizal explained that Dapitan was “founded by Boholanos before or after the coming of the first Spaniards” and that “Dapitan means a place of rendezvous or meeting-place.” As a disclosure, let me state that I am a Boholano thus I was excited for the opportunity to visit the place during the holidays and gather data on Rizal’s ecological way of life in a home away from home. I have written elsewhere about the evacuation of some Boholanos to Dapitan. However, there is another narrative claiming that the evacuees were actually conquerors of the Boholanos and that they were forced out of their Mansasa-Dauis settlement as consequence of the raid by Ternate sometime in 1563. This article, however, has a simpler aim -- to piece together some of Rizal’s ideas and feelings during his banishment as embodied in his separate writings.

Rizal’s Place in Dapitan

View of "handome bay" from Rizal's place
Rizal described Dapitan as “situated by a handsome bay that faces West, on some sort of island formed expressly for her, as if in order to isolate her from the vulgar world, by a lovely river which to this end has graciously consented to split itself into two, thus to embrace her with two silvery arms and carry her towards the sea as an offering, the most beautiful that it has found in its tortuous and eventful pilgrimage over mountains and valleys, through forests and plain.”[i]

Rizal initially stayed in the house of the governor and military commandant near the town’s plaza. Later, he was allowed to move to the coastal barangay of Talisay where he bought a 16-hectare piece of land using his lottery earnings. He said in another letter to his friend that “Talisay is the proper name of the piece of land I have bought.” Although the place is named after the talisay tree, Rizal said in a letter to Manuel Hidalgo on 8 February 1893 that there was no talisay tree in the area. So, he thought of calling his farm Balunò (Baunò) after the trees that were found there.

As soon as he settled down, Rizal cleared the land, planted rice and corn, and built a house, a clinic and a school.[ii] In another letter to Hildalgo on 7 March 1893, he said:

Replica of Rizal's house
“My house will be finished either tomorrow or after tomorrow. It is very pretty for its price (40 pesos) and it turned out better than what I wanted. My lot cannot be better and I am improving it every day... I have plenty of land to accommodate at least five families with houses and orchards."[iii]
 In another letter to Blumentritt on 19 December 1893, Rizal described how he lived:
 “I have three houses; one square, another hexagonal, and a third octagonal, all of bamboo, wood and nipa. In the square house we live, my mother, sister Trinidad, a nephew and I; in the octagonal live my boys or some good youngsters whom I teach arithmetic, Spanish and English; and in the hexagonal live my chickens. From my house I hear the murmur of a crystal clear brook which comes from the high rocks; I see the seashore, the sea where I have small boats, two canoes or barotos, as they say here. I have many fruit trees, mangoes, lanzones, guayabanos, baluno, nangka, etc. I have rabbits, dogs, cats, etc. I rise early—at five—visit my plants, feed the chickens, awaken my people and put them in movement. At half-past seven we breakfast with tea, pastries, cheese, sweetmeats, etc. Later I treat my poor patients who come to my land; I dress, I go to the town in my baroto, treat the people there, and return at 12 when my luncheon awaits me. Then I teach the boys until 4 P.M. and devote the after-noon to agriculture. I spend the night reading and studying.[iv]

In his poem, My Retreat[v], Rizal shared a glimpse of his new home:
Beside a spacious beach of fine and delicate sand
and at the foot of a mountain greener than a leaf,
I planted my humble hut beneath a pleasant orchard,
seeking in the still serenity of the woods
repose to my intellect and silence to my grief.

Its roof is fragile nipa; its floor is brittle bamboo;
its beams and posts are rough as rough-hewn wood can be;
of no worth, it is certain, is my rustic cabin;
but on the lap of the eternal mount it slumbers
and night and day is lulled by the crooning of the sea.

The overflowing brook, that from the shadowy jungle
descends between huge bowlders, washes it with its spray,
donating a current of water through makeshift bamboo pipes
that in the silent night is melody and music
and crystalline nectar in the noon heat of the day.

If the sky is serene, meekly flows the spring,
strumming on its invisible zither unceasingly;
but come the time of the rains, and an impetuous torrent
spills over rocks and chasms—hoarse, foaming and aboil—
to hurl itself with a frenzied roaring toward the sea.

The barking of the dog, the twittering of the birds,
the hoarse voice of the kalaw are all that I hear;
there is no boastful man, no nuisance of a neighbor
to impose himself on my mind or to disturb my passage;
only the forests and the sea do I have near.

Rizal as Teacher


Rizal dreamed of founding a school with Blumetritt as school director so that he could focus in studying science and in writing history.[vi] In Talisay, he built a school and taught local children (16 high school level boys in 1896), as well as children entrusted to him by his kins (elementary level), how to catch insects, gather shells, dive for rare fish, speak and write languages like Spanish, English, French and German, as well as “practical lessons in botany and zoology,” physical fitness and martial arts. As a teacher, Rizal developed his own practical teaching method, learning aids and learning management.”[vii]  His poem, Hymn to Talisay, depicts the style and content of his instruction:

At Dapitan, the sandy shore
And rocks aloft on mountain crest
Form thy throne, O refuge blest,
That we from childhood days have known.
In your vales that flowers adorn
And your fruitful leafy shade,
Our thinking power are being made,
And soul with body being grown.

We are youth not long on earth
But our souls are free from sorrow;
Calm, strong men we’ll be tomorrow,
Who can guard our families’ right.
Lads are we whom naught can frighten,
Whether thunder, waves, or rain
Swift of arm, serene of mien
In peril, shall we wage our fights.

With our games we churn the sand,
Through the caves and crags we roam,
On the rocks  we make our home,
Everywhere our arms can reach.
Neither dark nor night obscure
Cause us fear, nor fierce torment
That even Satan can invent
Life or death? We must face each!

“Talisayans”, people call us!
Mighty souls in bodies small
O’er Dapitan’s district all
No Talisay like this towers.
None can march our reservoir.
Our diving pool the sea profound!
No rowing boat the world around
For the moment can pass ours.

We study science exact;
The history of our motherland;
Three languages or four command;
Bring faith and reason in accord.
Our hands can manage at one time
The sail and working spade and pen,
The mason’s maul – for virile men
Companions – and the gun and sword.

Live, live, O leafy green Talisay!
Our voices sing thy praise in chorus
Clear star, precious treasure for us.
Our childhood’s wisdom and its balm.
In fights that wait for every man,
In sorrow and adversity,
Thy memory a charm will be,
And in the tomb, thy name, thy calm.

CHORUS
Hail, O Talisay!
Firm and untiring
Ever aspiring,
Stately thy gait.
Things, everywhere
In sea, land and air
Shalt thou dominate

In another letter to his friend on 15 January 1895, he said: 

“My life now is quiet, peaceful, retired and without glory, but I think it is useful too. I teach here the poor but intelligent boys reading, Spanish, English, mathematics, and geometry; moreover I teach them to behave like men. I taught the men here how to get a better way of earning their living and they think I am right. We have begun and success crowned our trials.”

Josephine Bracken, his partner, supervised the school when Rizal was away. In a letter to his mother on 12 March 1896, Rizal intimated:  “She bathes them, and washes and mends their clothes, so that, poor girl, she is never at rest, but she does it willingly for she has a great love for the boys, and they love her more than they love me!”

Rizal as Farmer

Rizal’s farm had fruit trees (mangoes, lanzone, guayabanos, baluno, nanka, etc.), rabbits, dogs, cats, chickens, rice, corn, ferns and flowers like roses and sampaguita. In another letter to his mother, Rizal said:

“My land has 6,000 abaca plants. If you want to come here, I shall build a house where we can all live together until we die…My land is beautiful; it is in the interior, far from the sea, about a half-hour’s walk; it is in a very picturesque place. The land is very fertile. In addition to the abaca plantation there is land for planting two cavanes [150 liters] of corn. Little by little we can buy the remaining lands near mine. There are plenty of dalag [mudfish], pakò [ferns] and little round stones.”[viii]

When Rizal found out that that the local fisherfolk used an inefficient fishing technique, he looked for ways to address this problem. This can be gleaned from his letter to Hildalgo on 19 January 1893:

“Here I have formed a partnership with a Spaniard to supply the town with fish of which it lacks. In Dapitan alone there are six thousand inhabitants and in the interior some two or three thousands more and for so many people there is nothing but small sakag that catches little fish of the size of the talaisá. Aquilino told me that with one pukútan [net] alone like yours, the whole town could be supplied with fish, because here there is a good beach and fish abound a little distance away from the shore. If you wish to sell me your pukútan at an agreed price, and if it is still in good condition, I would buy it. If not, I would appreciate it if you would buy me a pukútan in the same condition, good, strong, etc. Here nobody knows how to weave the mesh of a net.”[ix]

Rizal also formed the Sociedad de Agricultores Dapitanos in 1895 to “improve/promote agricultural products, obtain better profits for them, provide capital for the purchase of these goods, and help to the extent possible the harvesters and labourers by means of a store (co-op) where articles of basic necessity are sold at moderate prices.”[x]


Rizal as Surgeon


Rizal’s fame as an exiled surgeon began seven days after his arrival in Dapitan and while he was staying in the house of the governor and military commandant. This was made possible by an incident that occurred during a celebration of the town’s fiesta on 24 July 1892. A local resident was hurt by a firecracker that exploded in his hands. He squirmed in pain, but the local folks could not help him. An unknown Rizal came into the picture and treated his first patient. In a few months, the townfolk would call him “Dr. Rizal” and “greeted him with more reverence than they did the comandante and the parish priest.”[xi]

On 15 January 1895, Rizal wrote to Blumentritt that he was “overwhelmed with patients” who were “so numerous that I have to turn away some for not being able to attend to them.” He operated on “three or five patients a week. Many are poor but some pay.” In the same letter, he also told his friend about a good news: “I got operated my dear Mother of cataract. Thank God she is perfectly well now and can write and read with easy.”

As a surgeon, Rizal offered free services to the local people, but charged the visitors based on their capacity to pay. From his earnings, he helped the town by building a hospital, donating funds for public lighting, etc. But he was conscious of the difficulty he was facing as a physician. In his letter to Jose Basa on 18 December 1894, he said:
“This town of Dapitan is very good. I’m in good terms with everyone. I live peacefully, but the town is very poor, very poor. Life in it is not unpleasant to me because it is isolated and lonesome; but I am sorry to see so many twisted things and not be able to remedy them, for there is no money or means to buy instruments and medicine. Here a man fell from a coconut tree and perhaps I could have saved him if I had instruments and chloroform on hand. I perform operations with the little that I have. I treat lameless and hernias with reeds and canes. I do the funniest cures with the means available. I cannot order anything, for the patients cannot pay; at times I even give medicine gratis.”[xii]

Rizal as an Engineer
Dike of stone, brick and mortar

On 15 January 1895, Rizal wrote to Blumentritt that he was “going to build a water-tank on my land. I have 14 boys whom I teach languages, mathematics, and how to work, and as we have no work I have decided to construct a dike of stone, brick, and mortar so that they may learn.” On 20 November of the same year, he wrote that he “made a wooden machine for making bricks” and that he could “make at least 6,000 a day”. He eventually built an oven for the bricks.

Relief Map of Midanao in front of St. James Church
Outside his land, Rizal helped the town by developing its first park, with street lamps and a garden/flower relief map of the whole island of Mindanao. With support of the local authorities and the residents, he constructed Dapitan’s aqueduct with a length of several kilometers using clay tiles and lime. He also initiated plaza beautification and clean-up to improve health and sanitation.


Rizal as a Learner


Drawing of Rhacophorus rizali
On top of his professional occupation and other activities, Rizal continued his search for knowledge. He studied the Tagalog grammar, Malay and Bisaya, wrote an article on witchcraft in the Philippines, collected species that he sent to scientists abroad like A.B. Meyer (three species are named after Rizal)[xiii], read books and magazines like Scientific American and Saturday Review. He wrote poems and letters that reflected his brilliant mind and carried his pains and aspirations. 

The last two stanzas of Mi Retiro capture his sentiments:

You offer me, O illusions, the cup of consolation;
you come to reawaken the years of youthful mirth;
hurricane, I thank you; winds of heaven, I thank you
that in good hour suspended by uncertain flight
to bring me down to the bosom of my native earth.

Beside a spacious beach of fine and delicate sand
and at the foot of a mountain greener than a leaf,
I found in my land a refuge under a pleasant orchard,
and in its shadowy forests, serene tranquility,
repose to my intellect and silence to my grief.[xiv]



[i] Translated from the original Spanish by George Aseniero; cited in Walpole, P. (2011, May 11). Dapitan Most Beautiful. [Msg. 39]. Posted to ESSC –Environmental Science for Social Change, archived at http://essc.org.ph/content/view/472/104/
[ii] Rizal, J. (1964). Letters between Rizal and family members. Manila: National Heroes Commission, 356
[iii] Rizal, 1964, 358-359
[iv] Rizal, J. (1961a). The Rizal-Blumentritt correspondence, Volume II. Manila: Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission, 475
[v] Translated from the Spanish by Nick Joaquin; see http://en.wikipilipinas.org/index.php/Mi_Retiro
[vi] Rizal, 1961a, Vol. II, 344
[vii] Bantug, A. L. (2008). Lolo Jose: An intimate and illustrated portrait of Rizal (2nd ed.). Quezon City: Vidal Publishing House, 134
[viii] Rizal, 1964, 416-417
[ix] Rizal, 1964, 354
[x] Rizal, J. (1961b). Escritos de Jose Rizal, Tomo VII: Escritos Politicos e Historicos. Manila: Comision Nacional del Centenario de Jose Rizal, 328-330
[xi] Rizal, J. (1961b); Quibuyen, F. (December 2011). Rizal’s Legacy for the 21st Century: Progressive Education, Social Entrepreneurship and Community Development in Dapitan. Social Science Diliman, 7:2, 1-29 stated that the “firecracker incident is recounted in the unpublished memoirs written in Spanish of Jose Aseniero, Rizal’s star pupil in Dapitan, who eventually became governor of the province of Zamboanga (1925-1928) under American rule” based on personal communication.
[xii] Rizal, J. (1963). Rizal’s correspondence with fellow reformists, 1882-1896. Manila: National Heroes Commission, 717
[xiii] These species are Draco rizali (a small lizard, known as a flying dragon), Apogania rizali (rare kind of beetle with five horns) and Rhacophorus rizali (frog). See https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Rizal#Species_named_after_Rizal

Monday, January 26, 2015

Ancient History of the Philippines: An Introduction

Sculpture Ifugao. XV century. Northern Luzon, Philippines. Figure of 
"Bulul" sitting holding a cup. Wood. The Ifugao grant anthropomorphic
representations of rice  deities, called "Bulul" the power to ensure the
seeds before sowing and piles of fresh beans after harvest…
by Alan S. Cajes

If the story of the universe is told in a calendar year[1], the following events happened from January to November: separation of the gravitational force from the infinite singularity; formation of a thick mixture of hydrogen and helium; birth of the galaxies; explosion of a star that spewed forth heavy elements such as carbon, oxygen and nitrogen, and then the birth of the solar system. In the 12th month, December, the first microscopic forms of life emerged. On the last day of December, the first shell appeared. At the last minute of the last day of December, life emerged from the sea. During a tiny fraction of the last second of December 31, the first hominid ancestor of humans and apes and chimpanzees appeared.

The universe is 13.75 billion years old.[2] About 3.8 billion years ago, the first microscopic forms of life came into being[3]. How these forms of life emerged can be attributed to the right conditions created by a combination of factors, such as cosmic dust, water, light, gases, geology, climate, and the forces of the universe, namely gravity, electromagnetism, weak force, and the strong force.

Nature managed the evolution process in such a way that higher and more complex and diverse forms of life inhabit Planet Earth. Between 7 and 6 million years ago, the Sahelanthropustchadensis, “one of the oldest known species in the human family tree” lived in West-Central Africa.[4] About 200,000 years ago, the modern human beings, Homo sapiens, evolved in Africa.[5]

Sometime between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago, the “early humans first migrated out of Africa into Asia and then “populated many parts of the world much later.”[6]It is estimated that farming, which was an impetus for the rise of civilizations, started around 12,000 years ago.

Island Arcs, Land Bridges


More than 50 million years ago, before India moved rapidly northward and violently fused with Eurasia, the landmass of the Philippines was composed of arc-shaped volcanic islands or island arcs situated away from the current location of the archipelago. The movements of the Asian and the Australian continents gave rise to volcanoes that eventually rose, scattered, moved and merged incompletely to become what is now known as the Philippine islands.[7] The geological story of the archipelago is largely responsible for the “odd patterns of distribution and diversity in the region.”[8] 

To be specific, during the Eocene (55.8 to 33.9 million years ago) and Oligocene (33.9 to 23 million years ago) periods, the northern part of the “archipelago was said to have been linked with Formosa.”[10] During the Pleistocene (from 2.6 million to 11,700 years ago), the western connection linking Palawan to Borneo was “dry land.” But the eastern connection linking eastern Mindanao to Celebes and New Guinea was “a series of islets”.[11] 


The eastern and western connections made possible the link of the Philippine islands to river systems in Asia. These “riverine connections” were the pathways of “species of fish, fauna, as well as other animals” that are “related with those found in the mainland of Asia, eastern Malaya, and Indonesia.”[12]

During the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), around 21 thousand years ago, the ice sheets grew and covered continents like Asia. This resulted in drought and desertification, as well as caused the sea level to fall. At this time, Palawan was part of Sundaland, a landmass that joined the Indonesian islands, including Borneo and Bali, to the Asian continent. However, Sathiamurthy and Voris (2006) said that the rest of the Philippine islands was a single island that was not attached to the continent.

Peopling of the Philippines


There are two views on the peopling of the Philippines. In the first view, according to Jocano (2001), humans inhabit the islands “as a result of the continuous process of human evolution, radiating to a number of directions as differentiation in ecological setting occurred, following changes in the climatic conditions in the area (p.52). The second view assumes that there were no humans in the Philippine archipelago at a certain point, roughly before 40,000 years ago. As part of the continuing movement of the early homo sapiens from one place to another, they reached the islands that encompass what is now known as the Philippines.[13] Based on evidence, the oldest human fossils (skullcap and two jaws) found in the Philippines dated between 24,000 and 22,000 BC.

These views support the contention that the Filipinos are not “racially Malays,” but belong to the “brown” race.[14]

Pearl of the Orient Seas


Before humans inhabit the Philippine islands, the archipelago was literally the Pear of the Orient Seas. Jocano (2011) says that the “archipelago was covered with unbroken forest, from sea level to the highest mountaintops (pp.90-91)” and that there were “big animals that formed part of our mammalian fauna, like elephants, rhinoceros, and steno dons.”

Even the studies done during the American occupation showed that the natural resources of the Philippines were “unquestionably vast”[15] with the country’s “fifty-four thousand square miles of forest” a “potential source of great wealth.”[16]Edwards (1905) claimed that there “is probably no country of equal size in the world having a greater variety or wealth of vegetable fibers than the Philippine Islands. These fibers are of every class and of every description. They are obtained from the best of the largest forest trees and from the slender stems of twinning ferns (pp. 222-230.”

The pristine lowland rain forests of the Philippines were a blend of big trees that have large woody prop roots and straight trunks that could extend up to more than 30 meters. The stems and leaves of trees that stand 20 to 40 meters shielded the forest floor from sunlight and dampened rain and wind. Numerous climbing plants, shrubs, small trees, ferns and vines thrive in the understory or the dark, cool space between the leaves and the ground. The forest floors, which were covered with fallen leaves and rotting plant matter, teemed with smaller flora and fauna. The country’s montane rainforests grew starting at an elevation of 1,000 meters with the high montane forests or cloud forests (elevation of 2,500-3,000 meters) harboring a rich variety of epiphytes or air plants. These forests were “always wet because of year-round rainfall, storing enormous volumes of water, and humidity was always high, from 70-100%, even during dry periods.”[17]

In the Philippines, humid air or air that has high amount of water or vapor cools at an “an average rate of 6° Centigrade for every 1,000 meters that it rises.” The higher the elevation, the cooler is the air. The cooler the air, the higher is the rainfall. In addition, about 20 tropical cyclones enter the Philippine Area of Responsibility every year, of which 8 to 9 make a landfall bringing strong winds and rain. Heavy rains on rain forest are cushioned by the leaves of trees, thereby landing softly on the forest floors that absorb the water and release it to springs and tributaries.[18]

According to Conservation International (2007), the Philippines has 9,253 plant species (with 6,091 endemic species, 167 mammals (with 102 endemic species), 535 birds (with 186 endemic species), 237 reptiles (with 160 endemic species), 89 amphibians (with 76 endemic species), 281 freshwater fishes (with 67 endemic species).[19]

Filipino Ancestors


The human inhabitants of the country started using stone tools around 500,000 B.C. Around 1,500 B.C., they started the ceramic industries. Although there is no evidence how the early settlers discovered fire, archaeological sites that have edible shells mixed with charcoal indicate that fire was used to cook food. In terms of rice farming, Jocano (2011) says that the settlers practiced it between 1,720-1,380 B.C. based on evidence found in Andarayan, Solana, Cagayan Province.


The period covering the first to the fourteenth centuries A.D. was characterized by the growth of communities, development of writing, political fragmentation, and foreign trade. There is no record yet of any serious environmental degradation attributed to humans around this time. The systematic human-induced destruction of nature started with the Spanish period, although there were policies that aimed to manage the natural resources.

When the Spaniards came to the Philippines, the population of the islands was less than one million.[20] Houses were typically built near the sea or rivers where people survived mainly by fishing. The water systems also served as the principal means of transportation, says Jocano (2001).

According to Jocano (2001), the Pre-Hispanic settlements were mainly “far from each other, with houses of renewable materials (p. 28).” For areas that did not yet shift to wet-rice agriculture, the houses “were regarded as temporary shelters rather than life-long homes (p. 28)” since shifting cultivation required people to move from one place to another. This means of livelihood – subsistence agriculture – provided the settlers “with barely enough for their needs.”

Constantino (1994) said that the wet agriculture among some lowland communities, however, could produce “an abundance of rice in a short time (p. 29).”[21] The upland method of planting rice basically involved clearing a portion of a mountain, making holes in the soil, and putting grains in the holes. Through this technique, the famers “obtained very heavy crops (p. 29)."[22]

The early farmers soon learned that planting crops is dependent on the quality of the soil. As a result, Hornedo (2000) says, some of them came up with a cultivation calendar that allowed the soil to recover its fertility.

Change in Landscape


The ancient way of life of the Filipino ancestors drastically changed when new cultures reached the Philippines, especially at the beginning of the 16 century. At the time of the Spanish conquest, it its estimated that the country’s forest cover was about 90 percent. The plantation economy that the Spaniards in the Philippines introduced, such as tobacco and sugar plantations, decimated forest areas. Around 1870, for instance, Cebu island experienced severe deforestation. Ponting (1991) says that by the end of the “nineteenth century about a fifth of the forests had been destroyed (p. 256).” 

The Americans introduced modern logging to the Philippines in 1904 after the establishment of the Bureau of Forestry in 1900.[23] Around that time, the remaining virgin forest was 80 percent. This was reduced to about 40 percent in the early 1950s. In the 1980s, less than 26 percent virgin forest remained. 

The Philippines, just like the other countries that became independent, viewed forest as a source of timber, which was a source of revenue given the increased demand for tropical hardwood by the high-income countries, says Ponting (1991).

Modern logging and farming have scarred the country’s landscape. Ponting (1991) claims that “in the Philippines, a third of the agricultural land suffers from serious soil erosion” as a result of modern agriculture (p. 258).



[1] Carl Sagan (1986) introduced this technique that has been used by other scientists. I replicated this technique while teaching an Environmental Management Course at the Master in Public Management Program of the Development Academy of the Philippines in 2002-2003.
[2]This is derived “from a cosmological model based on the Hubble constant and the densities of matter and dark energy.” Retrieved July 26, 2014 fromhttp://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/age.html
[3] The Holy Bible describes the creation of the world. In science, there are at least three theories how life began, namely through the tide pool, hydrothermal event, and lightning.
[13] Jocano (2011) argues that the islands of Southeast Asia were “clean slates, demographically, until peopled by groups of humans who immigrated (or drifted) into the region (pp.52-53)
[14]Jocano (2001) claims that “to say that Filipinos are racially Malays or that Filipino culture is derived from the Malays is to create a myth of origin that has no basis in fact (p.55).”
[15]See Dean Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present retrieved July 29, 2014 from http://www.archive.org/stream/philippinespast00worcgoog#page/n11/mode/2up
[16]See Dean Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present retrieved July 29, 2014 from http://www.archive.org/stream/philippinespast00worcgoog#page/n11/mode/2upThis inspired Worcester to declare: “We must teach them that agriculture comes before art; that a public office is a public trust; that the enormous potential wealth of their forests is worth preserving…(p.970)”
[17] Angel C. Alcala in his Foreword to Heaney and Regalado (1998) retrieved July29, 2014 fromhttp://archive.fieldmuseum.org/vanishing_treasures/
[20] Renato Constantino put the population (pre-Spanish settlements) at 750,000. See A Past Revisited, p. 27
[21]See also Francisco de Sande, "Relation of the Filipinas Islands, June 7, 1576," BR, Vol. IVE, p. 67
[22]See also Diego de Aduarte, "Historia de la Provincial del Sancto Rosario de la Orden de Predicadores," BR, Vol.XXXII, p. 199
[23] The U.S. Military Governor renamed “Inspeccion” into the Forestry Bureau on April 14, 1900. Retrieved July 29, 2014 from http://forestry.denr.gov.ph/history1.htm#american




[1] The U.S. Military Governor renamed “Inspeccion” into the Forestry Bureau on April 14, 1900. Retrieved July 29, 2014 from http://forestry.denr.gov.ph/history1.htm#american

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hornedo, Florentino H. (1997). Pagmamahal and Pagmumura Essays. Quezon City: ADMU-Office of Research and Pub.
Hornedo, Florentino H. (2002). Pagpakatao and Other Essays in Contemporary Philosophy and Literature of Ideas. Manila, Philippines: University of Santo Tomas Publishing House.
Jocano, F. Landa. (1988). Filipino prehistory: rediscovering precolonial heritage. Philippines: Punlad Research House.
Sathiamurthy, E.; Voris, H.K. (2006). Pleistocene Sea Level Maps for the Sunda Shelf. Chicago IL: The Field Museum.
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. (2014, August 14). Sahelanthropus tchadensis. Retrieved from http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/sahelanthropus-tchadensis
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. (2014, August 19). Homo sapiens. Retrieved from http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-sapiens
Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. (2014, August 19). Introduction to Human Evolution. Retrieved from http://humanorigins.si.edu/resources/intro-human-evolution
Tan, Samuel K. (1997). A History of the Philippines. Quezon City: Manila Studies Association, Inc. and Philippine National Historical Society, Inc.